Cities & Development in the Third World
Mansell, Villiers House, 41/47 Strand, london WC2N 5JE, England, (1990)Description
Introductory Chapter - Cities & Development in the Third World.
This book was published in 1990 following a workshop organized by the commonwealth Geographical Bureau in Delhi, India which explored the question of urbanization in developing countries. It contains a compilation of ten essays, taken from selected papers by authors mainly from developing countries in two broad sub categories – housing, services and welfare at a local scale and the urbanization process at the national and regional scale. Three chapters under the first section are Africa focused and 2 chapters from the second category are Africa-focused. My reading note will mainly concentrate on the Africa-focused half of this book.
An overall theme of this publication is to discredit the blind application to the developing Third World condition of the post-war modernist Western idealized view that cities are the best centres and instigators of national development. Evidence taken from studies and research is presented to argue that the persistence of poverty and lack of basic necessities is not due to the failure to successfully implement the idealised Western approach to urbanization and hence development, but that this approach simply does not work in the developing world context and the extremely rapid urbanization changes happening there are not directly related to improved city conditions.
It is recommended that the third world must study their own environments for an understanding of their own processes.
Chapter 2 – Housing Problems and Squatting Solutions in Metropolitan Kano (H.A.C. Main)
Squatter occupation is a common trait of city peripheries in developing countries, Africa included. Due to local customary cultural community access practices to land in Africa, unauthorized infiltration and pirate subdivision in this transitional zone are the main forms squatting takes in Africa, as opposed to the invasion-style squatting of slums in for example Latin America. Squatting began to be seen more favourably in Africa in the 60s as the only viable low-cost shelter option for the growing urban poor within a society unequipped to provide sufficient cheap urban housing. A symbiotic relationship then occurs with capitalism as squatters provide cheap labour for both formal and informal sectors. This cheap accommodation in turn reduces pressure on wages allowing for economic development. Other tolerable aspects of squatter settlements favouring their stability include being a sump for displaced residents from higher value urban areas as well as a potential votes for politicians who oppose eviction from these areas. So squatting can be seen as favourable to both high and low income groups.
An example is given on poor management of land in Kano Nigeria and the effect this has had on squatters and low income inhabitants. To aid urban growth, a departure from customary land tenure laws with state powers of land expropriation in Kano, Nigeria during a period of soaring land market prices led to the unintended discrimination of people subsisting on urban periphery by displacing them elsewhere in favour of housing middle-high income groups. This process had equitable intentions however was basically carried out in favour of those with wealth, political power and the right contacts. Those evicted are given land elsewhere however the varying quality of this land meant that residence in some of these areas was not taken up. Further reading of this chapter shows that government policies associated with urban development have created many more tens of thousands of squatters and points to the fact that land tenure from customary to statutory has been inappropriately used to the disadvantage of many urban vulnerable.
Perhaps an understandable lack of confidence and education in finding their own solution encourages African administrations to copy cat to statutory land tenure systems as being the global norm.
Chapter 3 – Post Colonial Urban Residential Changes in Zimbabwe – A Case Study. (Sioux D. Cumming)
A post-independence dramatic change occurred in the early 80s away from enforced colonial racial segregation. This study maps a characteristic pattern of post independence expansion of the previously confined black population from high density areas to lower density previously white suburbs. The physical reminder of colonial segregation remains in the suburb morphology, the patterning charts a typical slow start, then an initial clustering of black inhabitants in growing pockets, gradual levelling off at around 60-80% occupation and filtering from the low cost stands of previously white suburbs to higher income stands as black economic power grew and whites left. This study gives several sound reasons for the rate of movement of black population to lower density white suburbs but makes a point that often a focus on problems of low income housing can tend to mask growing problem of housing shortage among middle and high income brackets.
Chapter 4 – Urbanisation, Housing and Social Services in Nigeria – The Challenge of Meeting Basic Needs. (Ademola T. Salau).
Unprecedented rate of urbanisation in previous two decades and high economic growth not equitably distributed. Development in petroleum allowed government to make expenditure to tackle basic livability and shelter requirements for urban poor, however the result of government built housing schemes have basically wasted money in providing overly expensive accommodation which is ultimately unaffordable for intended urban poor, only to be occupied by middle-high income, often civil servant population.
This chapter argues for a different form of government support toward providing the urban poor with their basic needs. It must be recognised that for low-income groups housing is only a part of a total demand package for services. Also required is space, accessibility to place of work and amenities such as health, education and retail markets. So it is not simply enough to provide dwelling units only. Also government intervention in the housing sector is not enough to solve housing problems as this can be slow, units are designed to too high a standard, do not suit the lifestyle of the urban poor and it is expensive with professional fees and high contractor profit margins. Some privately built housing is much closer to being affordable so it has been suggested that reappraisal of government role in providing housing be made and perhaps they can focus more giving those able to build for themselves access to tools and resources, eg. loans. Conclusion is that government policy has actually aggravated housing problems.
Chapter 7 – Food for Thought or Thought About Food: Urban Food Distributions in Third World (David Drakakis-Smith).
Food – one of the most fundamental requirements of individuals. Not much investigation has been carried out on household food availability systems. However this is an important level at which food problems become apparent and immediate.
Generally poorer cities and households spend higher proportion on food – up to 75% income. Many urban households cultivate a portion of their food in what is called urban subsistence. Pressure on land gradually increases dependency of poor population on commercial sector for food. Commercial food sector can be divided into petty-commodity sector for low cost staples, fruit and vegetables, and capitalist sector entailing production, processing, distribution, retailing of food from domestic and international sources.
More research to be done to build picture of important urban subsistence. This is small scale and intensive in nature however can supply 25-85% of household food, depending on reading of city boundary.
Example of Harare – urban gardens important in three varying socio economic groups. 60-70% of households carry this out. Also ‘illegal’ cultivation of peripheral land and links with rural family and friends provide food.
Westernisation of food culture is tending to lower nutrition levels and increasing food dependency. This is characterised by a shift from subsistence to petty commodity to capitalized food systems.
Again an imposed system culminating in maladaptation problems.
Chpter 10 – Urbanisation of Spatial Strategies in West Africa.
During Colonisation there was a shift from the important pre-industrial Savannah Kingdoms, eg Timbuktu , with administration, commercial and education centres to a world capitalist economy based on production of palm oil, cocoa, rubber, timber in the coastal forest belt. This destroyed the traditional subsistence and exchange economy in favour of a modern export economy. A government incentivised and forced spatial shift was made to coastal administrative centres and to this day all coastal West African capitals are coastal cities.
Growth in urban West Africa is high for several reasons;
Urban to rural migration – can account for up to half, perception of opportunities better in cities and if employment not found in formal sector, can often be found in informal. Education also tends to cause city migration.
Other urbanization factors are - urban bias of policies, location of industry, provision of infrastructure, social amenities, and subsidised price of food for urban residents.
Attempts to alleviate pressure on capital cities being made by; encouraging private investment in non capital cities, move national capital and administration to other centres, create regional centres. There is a need for policies to be implemented in a sustained manner which is difficult in an atmosphere of common political instability.
Overall Conclusion
In the end of an era of direct association between urbanization and western ideas of development, good urban policy and development must be catered for by studying local conditions and realising that there are differences in how different cities and countries should manage urban growth.