%0 
%0 Journal Article
%A Palmeri, T. J.; Wong, A.C.N. & Gauthier, I
%D 2004
%T Computational approaches to the development of perceptual expertise
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%B Trends in Cognitive Science
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%V 8
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%N 8
%P 378--386
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%F Palmeri2004
%K Attention; Automatic Cognition; Competence; Data Gov't, Gov't; Humans; Learning; Memory; Non-P.H.S.; Non-U.S. P.H.S.; Perception Perception; Processing; Professional Research Support, U.S. Visual 
%X Dog experts, ornithologists, radiologists and other specialists are noted for their remarkable abilities at categorizing, identifying and recognizing objects within their domain of expertise. A complete understanding of the development of perceptual expertise requires a combination of thorough empirical research and carefully articulated computational theories that formalize specific hypotheses about the acquisition of expertise. A comprehensive computational theory of the development of perceptual expertise remains elusive, but we can look to existing computational models from the object-recognition, perceptual-categorization, automaticity and related literatures for possible starting points. Arguably, hypotheses about the development of perceptual expertise should first be explored within the context of existing computational models of visual object understanding before considering the creation of highly modularized adaptations for particular domains of perceptual expertise.
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%U http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.06.001
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%0 Journal Article
%A Pammer, Kristen; Hansen, Peter C; Kringelbach, Morten L; Holliday, Ian; Barnes, Gareth; Hillebrand, Arjan; Singh, Krish D & Cornelissen, Piers L
%D 2004
%T Visual word recognition: the first half second.
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%B Neuroimage
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%V 22
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%P 1819--1825
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%F Pammer2004
%K Adult; Aged; Brain Cerebral; Computer-Assisted; Decision Dominance, Evoked Female; Gov't; Humans; Image Imaging, Learning Magnetics; Magnetoencephalography; Making; Male; Mapping; Memory, Middle Non-U.S. Pattern Potentials, Processing, Reading; Recognition, Research Short-Term; Support, Three-Dimensional; Verbal Visual; 
%X We used magnetoencephalography (MEG) to map the spatiotemporal evolution of cortical activity for visual word recognition. We show that for five-letter words, activity in the left hemisphere (LH) fusiform gyrus expands systematically in both the posterior-anterior and medial-lateral directions over the course of the first 500 ms after stimulus presentation. Contrary to what would be expected from cognitive models and hemodynamic studies, the component of this activity that spatially coincides with the visual word form area (VWFA) is not active until around 200 ms post-stimulus, and critically, this activity is preceded by and co-active with activity in parts of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG, BA44/6). The spread of activity in the VWFA for words does not appear in isolation but is co-active in parallel with spread of activity in anterior middle temporal gyrus (aMTG, BA 21 and 38), posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG, BA37/39), and IFG.
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%U http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.05.004
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%0 Journal Article
%A Paulesu, E.; McCrory, E.; Fazio, F.; Menoncello, L.; Brunswick, N.; Cappa, S. F.; Cotelli, M.; Cossu, G.; Corte, F.; Lorusso, M.; Pesenti, S.; Gallagher, A.; Perani, D.; Price, C.; Frith, C. D. & Frith, U.
%D 2000
%T A cultural effect on brain function.
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%B Nature Neuroscience
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%I 
%V 3
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%P 91--96
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%F Paulesu2000
%K Adult; Brain Culture; Emission-Computed England; Frontal Gov't; Humans; Italy; Linguistics; Lobe; Mapping; Non-U.S. Photic Reaction Reading; Research Speech; Stimulation; Support, Temporal Time; Tomography, 
%X We present behavioral and anatomical evidence for a multi-component reading system in which different components are differentially weighted depending on culture-specific demands of orthography. Italian orthography is consistent, enabling reliable conversion of graphemes to phonemes to yield correct pronunciation of the word. English orthography is inconsistent, complicating mapping of letters to word sounds. In behavioral studies, Italian students showed faster word and non-word reading than English students. In two PET studies, Italians showed greater activation in left superior temporal regions associated with phoneme processing. In contrast, English readers showed greater activations, particularly for non-words, in left posterior inferior temporal gyrus and anterior inferior frontal gyrus, areas associated with word retrieval during both reading and naming tasks.
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%U http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/71163
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%0 Journal Article
%A Polk, Thad A; Stallcup, Matthew; Aguirre, Geoffrey K; Alsop, David C; D'Esposito, Mark; Detre, John A & Farah, Martha J
%D 2002
%T Neural specialization for letter recognition.
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%B Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
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%V 14
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%P 145--159
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%F Polk2002
%K Adolescent; Adult; Female; Gov't, Gov't; Humans; Imaging; Laterality; Lobe Magnetic Male; Non-P.H.S.; Non-U.S. P.H.S.; Pattern Reading; Recognition, Research Resonance Support, Temporal U.S. Visual; 
%X Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to estimate neural activity while subjects viewed strings of consonants, digits, and shapes. An area on or near the left fusiform gyrus was found that responded significantly more to letters than digits. Similar results were obtained when consonants were used whose visual features were matched with the digits and when an active matching task was used, suggesting that the results cannot be easily attributed to artifacts of the stimuli or task. These results demonstrate that neural specialization in the human brain can extend to a category of stimuli that is culturally defined and that is acquired many years postnatally.
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%U http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/089892902317236803
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%0 Journal Article
%A Price, Cathy J & Devlin, Joseph T
%D 2003
%T The myth of the visual word form area.
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%B Neuroimage
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%V 19
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%P 473--481
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%F Price2003a
%K Cognition; Cortex; Form Gov't; Humans; Imaging; Magnetic Non-U.S. Perception Perception; Reading; Research Resonance Support, Visual 
%X Recent functional imaging studies have referred to a posterior region of the left midfusiform gyrus as the "visual word form area" (VWFA). We review the evidence for this claim and argue that neither the neuropsychological nor neuroimaging data are consistent with a cortical region specialized for visual word form representations. Specifically, there are no reported cases of pure alexia who have deficits limited to visual word form processing and damage limited to the left midfusiform. In addition, we present functional imaging data to demonstrate that the so-called VWFA is activated by normal subjects during tasks that do not engage visual word form processing such as naming colors, naming pictures, reading Braille, repeating auditory words, and making manual action responses to pictures of meaningless objects. If the midfusiform region has a single function that underlies all these tasks, then it does not correspond to visual word form processing. On the other hand, if the region participates in several functions as defined by its interactions with other cortical areas, then identifying the neural system sustaining visual word form representations requires identification of the set of regions involved. We conclude that there is no evidence that visual word form representations are subtended by a single patch of neuronal cortex and it is misleading to label the left midfusiform region as the visual word form area.
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%0 Journal Article
%A Spiridon, Mona & Kanwisher, Nancy
%D 2002
%T How distributed is visual category information in human occipito-temporal cortex? An fMRI study.
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%B Neuron
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%I 
%V 35
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%P 1157--1165
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%F Spiridon2002
%K Cortex; Evoked Female; Gov't, Gov't; Humans; Imaging; Lobe; Magnetic Male; Nerve Net; Neuropsychological Non-U.S. P.H.S.; Pathways Pattern Performance; Photic Potentials, Psychomotor Recognition, Research Resonance Stimulation; Support, Temporal Tests; U.S. Visual Visual; 
%X We used fMRI to study the distribution of object category information in the ventral visual pathway. Extending the findings of, we find that categories of stimuli can be distinguished by the pattern of activation they elicit across this entire pathway, even when the stimuli within a category differ in viewpoint, exemplar, or image format. However, regions within the ventral visual pathway are neither interchangeable nor equipotential. Although the FFA and PPA permit excellent discrimination between preferred versus nonpreferred stimuli (e.g., faces-bottles and houses-bottles, respectively), we find that neither region alone permits accurate discrimination between pairs of nonpreferred stimuli (e.g., bottles-shoes). These findings indicate that the ventral visual pathway is not homogeneous, but contains some regions (including FFA and PPA) that are primarily involved in the analysis of a single class of stimulus.
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%0 Journal Article
%A Tagamets, M. A.; Novick, J. M.; Chalmers, M. L. & Friedman, R. B.
%D 2000
%T A parametric approach to orthographic processing in the brain: an fMRI study.
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%B J Cogn Neurosci
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%I 
%V 12
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%P 281--297
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%F Tagamets2000
%K Adult; Aged; Brain Brain; Female; Gov't, Gov't; Humans; Imaging; Language; Lobe; Magnetic Male; Mapping; Middle Models, Non-P.H.S.; Non-U.S. P.H.S.; Parietal Pathways; Reading; Research Resonance Statistical; Support, Temporal U.S. Visual Writing 
%X Brain activation studies of orthographic stimuli typically start with the premise that different types of orthographic strings (e.g., words, pseudowords) differ from each other in discrete ways, which should be reflected in separate and distinct areas of brain activation. The present study starts from a different premise: Words, pseudowords, letterstrings, and false fonts vary systematically across a continuous dimension of familiarity to English readers. Using a one-back matching task to force encoding of the stimuli, the four types of stimuli were visually presented to healthy adult subjects while fMRI activations were obtained. Data analysis focused on parametric comparisons of fMRI activation sites. We did not find any region that was exclusively activated for real words. Rather, differences among these string types were mainly expressed as graded changes in the balance of activations among the regions. Our results suggest that there is a widespread network of brain regions that form a common network for the processing of all orthographic string types.
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%0 Journal Article
%A Tarr, M. J. & Gauthier, I.
%D 2000
%T FFA: a flexible fusiform area for subordinate-level visual processing automatized by expertise.
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%B Nature Neuroscience
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%I 
%V 3
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%N 8
%P 764--769
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%F Tarr2000
%K Brain Brain; Face; Form Gov't, Imaging; Learning; Magnetic Mapping; Non-P.H.S. Pattern Perception; Recognition, Research Resonance Support, U.S. Visual; 
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%U http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/77666
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%0 Journal Article
%A Vigneau, M.; Jobard, G.; Mazoyer, B. & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N.
%D 2005
%T Word and non-word reading: what role for the Visual Word Form Area?
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%B Neuroimage
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%V 27
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%P 694--705
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%F Vigneau2005
%K Adolescent; Adult; Auditory Brain Computer-Assisted; Female; Fixation, Gov't; Humans; Image Imaging; Laterality; Magnetic Male; Mapping; Nerve Net; Non-U.S. Ocular; Oxygen; Perception Perception; Processing, Reading; Research Resonance Speech; Support, Visual 
%X The putative role of the so-called Visual Word Form Area (VWFA) during reading remains under debate. For some authors, this region is specifically involved in a pre-lexical processing of words and pseudowords, whereas such specificity is challenged by others given the VWFA involvement during both non-word reading and word listening. Here, we further investigated this issue, measuring BOLD variations and their lateralization with fMRI during word and non-word reading, in order to evaluate the lexicality effect, and during reading and listening of words, in order to evaluate the impact of stimulus delivery modality on word processing networks. Region of interest (ROI) analysis was first performed in three target areas: 1-VWFA as defined by a meta-analysis of the word reading literature, 2-a middle temporal area (T2) found co-activated by both word reading and listening, 3-an inferior occipital area (OI) belonging to the unimodal visual cortex of the inferior occipital gyrus. VWFA activity was found not different between word and non-word reading but was more leftward lateralized during word reading due to a reduction of activity in the VWFA right counterpart. A similar larger leftward lateralization during word reading was also uncovered in the T2 ROI but was related to a larger left side activity. Such a lexicality effect was not observed in the OI ROI. By contrast, BOLD increases during listening were restricted to the left VWFA and T2 ROIs. Voxel-based analysis (SPM99) showed that semantic areas were more active during word than non-word reading and co-activated by both reading and listening, exhibiting a left lateralized activity in all tasks. These results indicate that the left VWFA would be the place where visual and verbal representations bind under the control of left semantic areas.
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%U http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.04.038
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%0 Journal Article
%A Xu, B.; Grafman, J.; Gaillard, W. D.; Ishii, K.; Vega-Bermudez, F.; Pietrini, P.; Reeves-Tyer, P.; DiCamillo, P. & Theodore, W.
%D 2001
%T Conjoint and extended neural networks for the computation of speech codes: the neural basis of selective impairment in reading words and pseudowords.
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%B Cerebral Cortex
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%I 
%V 11
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%P 267--277
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%F Xu2001
%K Adult; Analysis Brain Cerebellum; Cortex; Emission-Computed Female; Gov't, Humans; Lobe; Male; Mapping; Nerve Net; Occipital P.H.S.; Phonetics; Photic Prefrontal Reaction Reading; Research Stimulation; Support, Temporal Time; Tomography, U.S. Variance; of 
%X The computation of speech codes (i.e. phonology) is an important aspect of word reading. Understanding the neural systems and mech- anisms underlying phonological processes provides a foundation for the investigation of language in the brain. We used high-resolution three-dimensional positron emission tomography (PET) to investigate neural systems essential for phonological processes. The burden of neural activities on the computation of speech codes was maximized by three rhyming tasks (rhyming words, pseudowords and words printed in mixed letter cases). Brain activation patterns associated with these tasks were compared with those of two baseline tasks involving visual feature detection. Results suggest strong left lateralized epicenters of neural activity in rhyming irrespective of gender. Word rhyming activated the same brain regions engaged in pseudoword rhyming, suggesting conjoint neural networks for phonological processing of words and pseudowords. However, pseudoword rhyming induced the largest change in cerebral blood flow and activated more voxels in the left posterior prefrontal regions and the left inferior occipital-temporal junction. In addition, pseudoword rhyming activated the left supramarginal gyrus, which was not apparent in word rhyming. These results suggest that rhyming pseudowords requires active participation of extended neural systems and networks not observed for rhyming words. The implications of the results on theories and models of visual word reading and on selective reading dysfunctions after brain lesions are discussed.
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