Machine learning of grammars finds many applications in syntactic pattern recognition, computational biology, natural language acquisition, etc. In this paper a new application of grammatical inference is suggested. Development of domain-specific languages is a hard problem for domain experts not versed in programming language design. We believe that syntax of a small domain-specific language can be inferred from positive and negative programs provided by domain experts. In our work we are the using genetic programming approach in grammatical inference. Grammar-specific heuristic operators and non-random construction of the initial population are proposed to achieve this task. Suitability of the approach is shown by small examples where underlying context-free grammars are successfully inferred.

@techreport{Mernik:2003, author = {Mernik, Marjan and v Crepinv sek, Matej and Gerliv c, Goran and v Zumer, Viljem and Bryant, Barrett R. and Sprague, Alan}, title = {Learning Context-Free Grammars using an Evolutionary Approach}, year = {2003}, url = {http://www.comp.mq.edu.au/~asloane/plrg/reading/genPar03.pdf}, keywords = {machine_learning grammar}, abstract = {Machine learning of grammars finds many applications in syntactic pattern recognition, computational biology, natural language acquisition, etc. In this paper a new application of grammatical inference is suggested. Development of domain-specific languages is a hard problem for domain experts not versed in programming language design. We believe that syntax of a small domain-specific language can be inferred from positive and negative programs provided by domain experts. In our work we are the using genetic programming approach in grammatical inference. Grammar-specific heuristic operators and non-random construction of the initial population are proposed to achieve this task. Suitability of the approach is shown by small examples where underlying context-free grammars are successfully inferred.} }

%0 = techreport %A = Mernik, Marjan and v Crepinv sek, Matej and Gerliv c, Goran and v Zumer, Viljem and Bryant, Barrett R. and Sprague, Alan %D = 2003 %T = Learning Context-Free Grammars using an Evolutionary Approach %U = http://www.comp.mq.edu.au/~asloane/plrg/reading/genPar03.pdf

A grammar formalism based upon CHR is proposed analogously to the way Definite Clause Grammars are defined and implemented on top of Prolog. These grammars execute as robust bottom-up parsers with an inherent treatment of ambiguity and a high flexibility to model various linguistic phenomena...

@unpublished{Christiansen:2002, author = {Christiansen, Henning}, title = {CHR Grammmars}, year = {2002}, note = {Submitted to journal Theory and Practice of Logic Programming}, url = {http://www.dat.ruc.dk/~henning/chrg/PapersOnCHRG/index.html}, keywords = {constraint_programming grammar prolog}, abstract = {A grammar formalism based upon CHR is proposed analogously to the way Definite Clause Grammars are defined and implemented on top of Prolog. These grammars execute as robust bottom-up parsers with an inherent treatment of ambiguity and a high flexibility to model various linguistic phenomena...} }

%0 = unpublished %A = Christiansen, Henning %D = 2002 %T = CHR Grammmars %U = http://www.dat.ruc.dk/~henning/chrg/PapersOnCHRG/index.html

This document explains how to use CHRG which is a grammar notation implemented on top of the CHR language of Constraint Handling Rules. CHR is an extension to Prolog with committed choice multiple-headed rules. You need to have a recent version of SICSTUS Prolog installed on your computer that supports the CHR library.

@misc{Christiansen:2002b, author = {Christiansen, Henning}, title = {User's Guide to CHR Grammars}, year = {2002}, note = {Visited 28 August 2003}, url = {http://www.dat.ruc.dk/henning/chrg/CHRGusersGuide.html}, keywords = {constraint_programming grammar prolog}, abstract = {This document explains how to use CHRG which is a grammar notation implemented on top of the CHR language of Constraint Handling Rules. CHR is an extension to Prolog with committed choice multiple-headed rules. You need to have a recent version of SICSTUS Prolog installed on your computer that supports the CHR library.} }

%0 = misc %A = Christiansen, Henning %D = 2002 %T = User's Guide to CHR Grammars %U = http://www.dat.ruc.dk/henning/chrg/CHRGusersGuide.html

Two kinds of framework for stating grammars of natural languages emerged during the 20th century. Here we call them generativeenumerative syntax (GES)an d model-theoretic syntax (MTS). They are based on very different mathematics. GES developed in the 1950s out of Post's work on the syntactic side of logic. MTS arose somewhat later out of the semantic side of logic. We identify some distinguishing theoretical features of these frameworks, relating to cardinality of the set of expressions, size of individual expressions, and �transderivational constraints�. We then turn to three kinds of linguistic phenomena: partial grammaticality, the syntactic properties of expression fragments, and the fact that the lexicon of any natural language is in constant flux, and conclude that MTS has some major advantages for linguistic description that have been overlooked. We briefly consider the issue of what natural languages in MTS terms, and touch on implications for parsing and acquisition.

@inproceedings{Pullum:2001, author = {Pullum, Geoffrey K. and Scholz, Barbara C.}, title = {On the Distinction between Model-Theoretic and Generative-Enumerative Syntactic Frameworks}, editor = {de Groote, Philippe and Morrill, Glyn and Retoré, Christian}, booktitle = {Proceedings LACL 2001}, series = {Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence}, publisher = {Springer-Verlag}, address = {Berlin Heidelberg}, year = {2001}, pages = {17-43}, url = {http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/lacl/lacl2001.html#PullumS01}, keywords = {grammar constraint_programming}, abstract = {Two kinds of framework for stating grammars of natural languages emerged during the 20th century. Here we call them generativeenumerative syntax (GES)an d model-theoretic syntax (MTS). They are based on very different mathematics. GES developed in the 1950s out of Post's work on the syntactic side of logic. MTS arose somewhat later out of the semantic side of logic. We identify some distinguishing theoretical features of these frameworks, relating to cardinality of the set of expressions, size of individual expressions, and �transderivational constraints�. We then turn to three kinds of linguistic phenomena: partial grammaticality, the syntactic properties of expression fragments, and the fact that the lexicon of any natural language is in constant flux, and conclude that MTS has some major advantages for linguistic description that have been overlooked. We briefly consider the issue of what natural languages in MTS terms, and touch on implications for parsing and acquisition.} }

%0 = inproceedings %A = Pullum, Geoffrey K. and Scholz, Barbara C. %B = Proceedings LACL 2001 %C = Berlin Heidelberg %D = 2001 %I = Springer-Verlag %T = On the Distinction between Model-Theoretic and Generative-Enumerative Syntactic Frameworks %U = http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/lacl/lacl2001.html#PullumS01

@inproceedings{vanZaanen:2000:2, author = {van Zaanen, Menno}, title = {ABL: Alignment-Based Learning}, booktitle = {COLING 2000 - Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Computational Linguistics}, year = {2000}, pages = {961--967}, url = {http://www.ics.mq.edu.au/menno/docs/p_coling00.pdf}, keywords = {machine_learning grammar} }

%0 = inproceedings %A = van Zaanen, Menno %B = COLING 2000 - Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Computational Linguistics %D = 2000 %T = ABL: Alignment-Based Learning %U = http://www.ics.mq.edu.au/menno/docs/p_coling00.pdf

@inproceedings{vanZaanen:2000, author = {van Zaanen, Menno}, title = {Bootstrapping Syntax and Recursion using Alignment-Based Learning}, editor = {Langley, Pat}, booktitle = {Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Conference on Machine Learning}, publisher = {Morgan Kaufmann Publishers}, year = {2000}, pages = {1063--1070}, url = {http://www.ics.mq.edu.au/menno/docs/p_icml00.pdf}, keywords = {machine_learning grammar} }

%0 = inproceedings %A = van Zaanen, Menno %B = Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Conference on Machine Learning %D = 2000 %I = Morgan Kaufmann Publishers %T = Bootstrapping Syntax and Recursion using Alignment-Based Learning %U = http://www.ics.mq.edu.au/menno/docs/p_icml00.pdf

@book{Borsley:1996, author = {Borsley, Robert D.}, title = {Modern Phrase Structure Grammar}, publisher = {Blackwell}, address = {Oxford}, year = {1996}, keywords = {grammar} }

%0 = book %A = Borsley, Robert D. %C = Oxford %D = 1996 %I = Blackwell %T = Modern Phrase Structure Grammar

@book{Bunt:1996,, title = {Discontinuous Constituency}, editor = {Bunt, Harry and van Horck, Arthur}, publisher = {Mouton de Gruyer}, address = {Berlin}, year = {1996}, keywords = {grammar} }

%0 = book %C = Berlin %D = 1996 %I = Mouton de Gruyer %T = Discontinuous Constituency

@techreport{Covington:1994:3, author = {Covington, Michael A.}, title = {GULP 3.1: An Extension of Prolog for Unification-Based Grammar}, year = {1994}, number = {AI-1994-06}, url = {http://www.ai.uga.edu/mc/}, keywords = {NLP grammar prolog} }

%0 = techreport %A = Covington, Michael A. %D = 1994 %T = GULP 3.1: An Extension of Prolog for Unification-Based Grammar %U = http://www.ai.uga.edu/mc/

@article{McCord:1992, author = {McCord, Michael and Bernth, Arendse and Lappin, Shalom and Zadrozny, Wlodek}, title = {Natural Language Processing within a Slot Grammar Framework}, journal = {International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools}, year = {1992}, volume = {1}, number = {2}, pages = {229-277}, keywords = {NLP grammar} }

%0 = article %A = McCord, Michael and Bernth, Arendse and Lappin, Shalom and Zadrozny, Wlodek %D = 1992 %T = Natural Language Processing within a Slot Grammar Framework

@techreport{Carroll:1991, author = {Carroll, John and Briscoe, Ted and Grover, Claire}, title = {A Development Environment for Large Natural Language Grammars}, year = {1991}, keywords = {grammar computer} }

%0 = techreport %A = Carroll, John and Briscoe, Ted and Grover, Claire %D = 1991 %T = A Development Environment for Large Natural Language Grammars

@book{Quirk:1985:G, author = {Quirk, Randolph and Greenbaum, Sidney and Leech, Geoffrey and Svartvik, Jan}, title = {A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language}, publisher = {Longman}, address = {London}, year = {1985}, keywords = {grammar} }

%0 = book %A = Quirk, Randolph and Greenbaum, Sidney and Leech, Geoffrey and Svartvik, Jan %C = London %D = 1985 %I = Longman %T = A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language

@article{Dahl:1980, author = {Dahl, Öster}, title = {Some Arguments for Higher Nodes in Syntax: A Reply to Hudson's `Constituency and Dependency'}, journal = {Linguistics}, year = {1980}, volume = {18}, pages = {484-488}, keywords = {DG grammar} }

%0 = article %A = Dahl, Öster %D = 1980 %T = Some Arguments for Higher Nodes in Syntax: A Reply to Hudson's `Constituency and Dependency'

@article{Hudson:1980b, author = {Hudson, Richard}, title = {A Second Attack on Constituency}, journal = {Linguistics}, year = {1980}, volume = {18}, pages = {489-504}, keywords = {DG grammar} }

%0 = article %A = Hudson, Richard %D = 1980 %T = A Second Attack on Constituency

@article{Hudson:1980a, author = {Hudson, Richard}, title = {Constituency and Dependency}, journal = {Linguistics}, year = {1980}, volume = {18}, pages = {170-198}, keywords = {DG grammar} }

%0 = article %A = Hudson, Richard %D = 1980 %T = Constituency and Dependency

@book{Quirk:1972, author = {Quirk, Randolph and Greenbaum, Sidney and Leech, Geoffrey and Svartvik, Jan}, title = {A Grammar of Contemporary English}, publisher = {Longman}, address = {Harlow, UK}, year = {1972}, keywords = {grammar} }

%0 = book %A = Quirk, Randolph and Greenbaum, Sidney and Leech, Geoffrey and Svartvik, Jan %C = Harlow, UK %D = 1972 %I = Longman %T = A Grammar of Contemporary English

@incollection{Baumgaertner:1970, author = {Baumgärtner, K.}, title = {Konstituenz und Dependenz. Zur Integration der beiden grammatischen Prinzipien.}, editor = {Steger, H.}, booktitle = {Vorschläge für eine strukturale Grammatik des Deutschen}, publisher = {Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft}, address = {Darmstadt}, year = {1970}, keywords = {DG grammar} }

%0 = incollection %A = Baumgärtner, K. %B = Vorschläge für eine strukturale Grammatik des Deutschen %C = Darmstadt %D = 1970 %I = Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft %T = Konstituenz und Dependenz. Zur Integration der beiden grammatischen Prinzipien.

@article{Gaifman:1965, author = {Gaifman, H.}, title = {Dependency Systems and Phrase-Structure Systems}, journal = {Information and Control}, year = {1965}, volume = {8}, pages = {304-337}, keywords = {DG grammar} }

%0 = article %A = Gaifman, H. %D = 1965 %T = Dependency Systems and Phrase-Structure Systems